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CONTENTS
FOREWORD ...................................................................................................................................vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..............................................................................................................ix
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................x
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................xx
I. METHODOLOGY, SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS............................................................................. xxvii
A. Research process and methodology ...................................................................................xxvii
B. Oversight and guidance ...................................................................................................xxviii
C. Approach........................................................................................................................xxviii
D. Scope and limitations.........................................................................................................xxix
II. HOW TO USE THE GUIDE...........................................................................................................xxix
A. Structure of the guide ........................................................................................................xxix
B. Structure of the sections......................................................................................................xxx
PART ONE: STATE OBLIGATIONS TO ENACT COMPREHENSIVE
ANTI-DISCRIMINATION LAW........................................................................................xxxii
I. CONSENSUS ON THE NEED TO ADOPT COMPREHENSIVE ANTI-DISCRIMINATION LAW............... 1
A. The international human rights law framework...................................................................... 1
B. Obligations to respect, protect and fulfil................................................................................. 2
C. United Nations human rights instruments and their interpretation .......................................... 4
II. CHARTER BODIES AND OTHER INTERNATIONAL PROCESSES ........................................................ 6
A. United Nations special procedure mandate holders................................................................. 6
B. Universal periodic review....................................................................................................... 6
C. Other international processes................................................................................................. 7
III. REGIONAL AND NATIONAL LAW DEVELOPMENTS ........................................................................ 8
A. Africa ................................................................................................................................... 8
B. The Americas.......................................................................................................................10
C. Europe.................................................................................................................................11
D. Other national law developments..........................................................................................13
IV. CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................... 15
PART TWO: CONTENT OF COMPREHENSIVE ANTI-DISCRIMINATION LAW....16
I. RIGHTS TO EQUALITY AND NON-DISCRIMINATION .................................................................... 17
A. Prohibition of discrimination ................................................................................................17
1. Personal scope of the right to non-discrimination..............................................................19
2. Forms of discrimination...................................................................................................29
3. Material scope of the right to non-discrimination..............................................................47
4. Justifications....................................................................................................................51
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PROTECTING MINORITY RIGHTS – A Practical Guide to Developing Comprehensive Anti-Discrimination Legislation
B. Positive action......................................................................................................................56
1. Obligation to adopt positive action measures....................................................................58
2. Purpose and scope of positive action measures..................................................................59
3. Principles for the operation of positive action ...................................................................62
4. Positive action under comprehensive anti-discrimination law.............................................65
C. Equality duties ....................................................................................................................66
1. Accessibility ....................................................................................................................66
2. Statutory equality duties ..................................................................................................69
3. Ensuring the effectiveness of equality duties......................................................................73
II. REMEDY........................................................................................................................................ 75
A. Remedies in different branches of law....................................................................................77
B. Sanction: bringing perpetrators to justice...............................................................................78
C. Reparation: recognition, compensation and restitution ..........................................................80
D. Institutional and societal remedies.........................................................................................81
1. Institutional remedies ......................................................................................................82
2. Societal remedies .............................................................................................................83
III. JUSTICE AND ENFORCEMENT ....................................................................................................... 87
A. Access to justice and legal procedure .....................................................................................88
1. Requirements of access to justice......................................................................................88
B. Evidence and proof...............................................................................................................93
1. Burden of proof...............................................................................................................94
2. Exceptions to the rule ......................................................................................................95
3. Evidence..........................................................................................................................96
C. International justice mechanisms ..........................................................................................97
1. Individual complaints mechanisms ...................................................................................97
2. Complainants, respondents and procedure........................................................................98
IV. EQUALITY BODIES ......................................................................................................................101
A. Equality bodies and international law .................................................................................102
B. Institutional requirements for equality bodies......................................................................103
1. Independence ................................................................................................................103
2. Adequate resourcing ......................................................................................................104
3. Inclusion, participation and ensuring diversity ................................................................105
4. Access to equality bodies ...............................................................................................106
C. Mandates, functions and powers of equality bodies .............................................................107
1. Promotion and prevention .............................................................................................109
2. Support and litigation....................................................................................................111
3. Decision-making and enforcement..................................................................................111
D. Ensuring the effectiveness of equality bodies........................................................................113
V. IMPLEMENTATION OBLIGATIONS...............................................................................................115
A. Equality policies and strategies............................................................................................116
B. Equality impact assessment.................................................................................................117
C. Monitoring and data ..........................................................................................................119
D. Consultation, engagement and participation........................................................................120
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CONTENTS
PART THREE: PROTECTING MINORITY RIGHTS ...........................................................122
I. MINORITY RIGHTS AND THE BAN ON DISCRIMINATION ..........................................................123
A. Minority rights under international law...............................................................................126
B. Who are minorities? ..........................................................................................................127
II. GROUPS EXPOSED TO RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AND ASSOCIATED HARMS ...........................130
A. Racial discrimination: jus cogens, particularly invidious harm, and the problem of denial .....134
B. Community, autonomy, equality and non-discrimination and harmful practices ...................135
III. RELIGIOUS OR BELIEF MINORITIES AND DISCRIMINATION........................................................139
A. Equality and non-discrimination in the exercise of freedom of religion or belief ....................139
1. State religion and religious and belief minorities .............................................................140
2. Equal recognition of minority religious or belief communities and their members.............141
B. Discrimination on the basis of religion or belief in other areas of life ....................................143
1. Religious clothing, symbols and the public sphere ...........................................................144
2. Religious or belief communities as duty bearers .............................................................146
3. Reasonable accommodation and religious practice..........................................................147
4. Opting out in the field of health .....................................................................................148
C. Discrimination on the basis of other characteristics in situations in which religion is a
pretext...............................................................................................................................149
1. Conscientious objection and its limits.............................................................................149
2. Family and personal status law: marriage, divorce, inheritance and burial .......................151
3. Harmful practices..........................................................................................................152
IV. LANGUAGE, LINGUISTIC MINORITIES, DISCRIMINATION, EQUALITY AND INCLUSION.............153
V. GENUINE AND EFFECTIVE MINORITY PARTICIPATION AND THE BAN ON DISCRIMINATION ....159
VI. RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ............................................................................................161
PART FOUR: DISCRIMINATORY VIOLENCE AND HATE CRIME .............................166
PART FIVE: DISCRIMINATION AND EXPRESSION......................................................172
I. ASPECTS OF SPEECH AND EXPRESSION DIRECTLY IMPLICATING ANTI-DISCRIMINATION
LAW............................................................................................................................................174
II. HATE SPEECH AND THE BAN ON INCITEMENT TO DISCRIMINATION, HOSTILITY OR
VIOLENCE ...................................................................................................................................175
A. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred as well as in relation to disability, gender
expression and gender identity, sex, sexual orientation, sex characteristics or other grounds .... 179
1. Assessing context...........................................................................................................181
2. Distinguishing the speaker .............................................................................................182
B. Disseminating ideas based on racial superiority or hatred.....................................................183
C. Incitement to commit genocide ...........................................................................................184
D. Incitement to commit terrorist acts .....................................................................................184
E. Defamation........................................................................................................................184
III. SANCTIONS FOR INCITEMENT AND OTHER FORMS OF HATE- OR BIAS-BASED EXPRESSION ...185
IV. NON-LEGAL MEASURES .............................................................................................................186
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PROTECTING MINORITY RIGHTS – A Practical Guide to Developing Comprehensive Anti-Discrimination Legislation
PART SIX: PROMOTING DIVERSITY AND EQUALITY: OBLIGATIONS TO
ADDRESS THE ROOT CAUSES OF DISCRIMINATION............................................190
I. INTERNATIONAL LAW OBLIGATIONS TO ADDRESS PREJUDICE, STEREOTYPES AND STIGMA....192
II. SPECIFIC MEASURES ...................................................................................................................196
A. Participation and representation in public life ......................................................................196
B. Diversity and equal representation ......................................................................................198
C. Education ..........................................................................................................................198
D. Media and awareness-raising ..............................................................................................199
E. Training and sensitization...................................................................................................199
F. Enforcement and implementation........................................................................................200
III. CONCLUSION: PROMOTING EQUALITY AND DIVERSITY ...........................................................201
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